Fatih Camii, plan and view of west faade, 12th century, Enez (Ainos) (plan and photo: Robert Ousterhout). The reuse of an older mosque layout is something Sinan did not normally do. [71][72] Kuban also argues that the Babsselam (Gate of Salution), the gate to the Second Court flanked by two towers, dates to the time Mehmed II. [230] Ottoman wooden mansions continued to be built on the shores of the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus until the 20th century, although they continued to be based on traditional models of Ottoman domestic architecture. One pavilion was in Ottoman style, another in Greek style, and a third one in a Persian style. The app turns your mobile device to a personal tour guide and it works offline, so no data plan is needed when traveling abroad. It was one of the largest examples of Turkish-Islamic architecture in Istanbul and represented . The prayer hall's interior is notable for being completely dominated by a single massive dome, whose view is unimpeded by the structural elements seen in other large domed mosques before this. [399] The many subsequent buildings built under Abdlhamid II are less monumental and many of them were designed by Raimond D'Aronco in an Art Nouveau style. The two wings of the palace are separated by the Ceremonial Hall, a grand domed hall. The term Baroque is sometimes applied more widely to Ottoman art and architecture across the 18th century including the Tulip Period. [77][78][79] The form of the rest of the mosque has had to be reconstructed by scholars using historical sources and illustrations. It was rebuilt in 1771 CE (to a different plan) by the architect Mimar Mehmet Tahir under the order of Sultan Mustapha III. Learn more about how you can collaborate with us. Alamy and its logo are trademarks of Alamy Ltd. and are registered in certain countries. [344], Beyond Istanbul the greatest palaces were built by powerful local families, but they were often built in regional styles that did not follow the trends of the Ottoman capital. In the first half of the 18th century Istanbul's water supply infrastructure, including the aqueducts in Belgrade Forest, were renovated and expanded. Coordinates: 410019N 285837E The Blue Mosque in Istanbul, also known by its official name, the Sultan Ahmed Mosque ( Turkish: Sultan Ahmet Camii ), is an Ottoman-era historical imperial mosque located in Istanbul, Turkey. Nikola at Kursumlija), Domed basilicas also reappear in the same period, as at the Fatih Camii at Enez or the, Annexed chapels and more complex plans appear regularly in the Middle Byzantine period. Some of the tiles were exported further abroad and examples of them have been found in Jerusalem, Cairo, and Venice. The most imposing structure in the center of the palace is the Byk Mabeyn Kk erected by Abdlaziz and designed by Agop and Sarkis Balyan. [41] The minbar (pulpit) of the mosque is among the finest examples of early Ottoman wooden minbars made with the kndekari technique, in which pieces of wood are fitted together without nails or glue. It was finished a few years later in 13991400. [518][519] The earliest recorded Tekfursaray tiles are those made in 17241725 for the mihrab of the older Cezeri Kasm Pasha Mosque (1515) in Eyp, Istanbul. Four bracing vaults extend outward in the form of a cross, set within the square of the plan below. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, Cite this page as: Dr. Robert G. Ousterhout, "Middle Byzantine church architecture," in, Not your grandfathers art history: a BIPOC Reader, Reframing Art History, a new kind of textbook, Guide to AP Art History vol. [402][393] It is decorated with neo-Gothic and Orientalist details, some of which recall the decoration of the earlier raan Palace and the Pertevniyal Valide Mosque (discussed below). [157] The mosque was part of a religious and commercial complex built for vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha begun in 15591560[158] and completed in 15651566[158] or in 15691571. [36][39] Two other T-plan examples, the Beylerbeyi Mosque in Edirne (14281429) and the Yahi Bey Mosque in Izmir (circa 14411442), are both significant as later T-plan structures with more complex decorative roof systems. [113][114] While a cross-like layout had symbolic meaning in Christian architecture, in Ottoman architecture this was purely focused on heightening and emphasizing the central dome. The original building was a mix of Neoclassical, Baroque, and Orientalist styles. The new Fatih Mosque was completed in 1771 and it neither reproduced the appearance of the original 15th-century building nor followed the contemporary Baroque style. [196] The larger complex includes a market, madrasa, and the Tomb of Ahmed I, while other structures have not survived. [380] Dolmabahe Palace was designed by Garabet Balyan, though his son Nikogos was known to collaborate with him and may have designed the Ceremonial Hall and the palace gates. These workshops eventually closed down after the First World War. Unlike Rumeli Hisar, it has a regular layout in the shape of a five-pointed star, possibly of Italian inspiration. Choose the city attractions that you want to see and a walk route map will be created just for you. [177][178][179] In 15801581 he built the Kl Ali Pasha Complex in the Tophane neighbourhood. Fatih Mosque Istanbul: A Guide to the Conqueror's Legacy Also attributed to the patronage of Monomachosand also lavishly decoratedthe church of H. Georgios ton Manganon in Constantinople (now destroyed)seems to have had an octagon-domed design, with the dome raised above reentrant piers that curved at the corners of the naos, which was enveloped by an ambulatory. The hotel has a meeting room and offers shows for children and tourist groups. [265][266] Most of the entrance portals have pyramidal semi-vaults which, instead of the traditional muqarnas, are carved with many rows of acanthus-like friezes and other motifs a composition that is neither Ottoman nor European in style. The decoration is also firmly Baroque, with Ionic-like capitals, round and mixtilinear arches, a mihrab similar to the Nuruosmaniye's, and other Baroque motifs. 296,669,475 stock photos, 360 panoramic images, vectors and videos, Share Alamy images with your team and customers. [182] It was the largest klliye and mosque complex Sinan built after the Sleymaniye. [474][488] Many scholars traditionally attribute these Ottoman tiles to craftsmen that Selim I brought back from Tabriz after his victory at the Battle of Chaldiran. The end of Iconoclasm (the conflict regarding religious images and their removal from churches) and the development of a theology of images had profound effects on church design, in terms of the development of a standardized program of decoration and a concomitant standardized building design, both of which reflected the hierarchy of Orthodox belief. Left: view of Nea Moni from the west (photo: FLIOUKAS, CC BY-SA 4.0); right: plan of katholikon of Nea Moni, Chios, 11th century ( Robert Ousterhout), Mosaics decorate the octaconch beneath the dome (with marble revetment lower down), Nea Moni, Chios, 11th century (photo: Meltedrainbow, CC BY-SA 4.0). [31], Hac zbek Mosque in Iznik (1333), one of the earliest surviving Ottoman mosques, Green Mosque interior: "Turkish triangles" form the transition from dome to square chamber[29], Interior of Yildirim Bayezid Mosque in Mudurnu (circa 1389), In 13341335 Orhan built a mosque outside the Yeniehir Gate in znik which no longer stands but has been excavated and studied by archeologists. stone stairs which are on either side of the mosque one enters the interior. Fatih Mosque. This technique was inherited from the earlier Seljuk period. We will contact you as soon as possible, to find out about the best offers and tourist information in Turkey, Send Your Information to Enjoy your offer. [256] Kuban describes it as the "most important monumental construction after the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne", marking the integration of European culture into Ottoman architecture and the rejection of the classical Ottoman style. [116] Sinan also moved the outer walls inward, near the inner edge of the buttresses, so that the latter were less visible inside the mosque. These characteristics represented a radical rejection of traditional Ottoman palace design. The mosque's courtyard is rectangular again, leaving the Nuruosmaniye's semi-elliptical courtyard as an experiment that was not repeated. [91] Like all imperial klliyes, it included multiple buildings, of which the mosque was the most prominent element. It was intended as the Muslim response to the Christian Hagia Sophia. [38] The Firuz Bey Mosque is notable for being built in stone and featuring carved decoration of high quality. [33] Variations of this floor plan were the most common type of major religious structure sponsored by the early Ottoman elites. There is a special section for the Sultan in the mosque built in the eighteenth century, which is devoted to the prayer of the sultans, they allocate time for them to remember, read the Quran and pray. [74][61] Not all of these structures have survived to the present day. This design represents the culmination of the previous domed and semi-domed buildings in Ottoman architecture, bringing complete symmetry to the dome layout. How far is the Blue Mosque from Fatih Mosque? [2] It first emerged in northwestern Anatolia in the late 13th century[3] and developed from earlier Seljuk Turkish architecture, with influences from Byzantine and Iranian architecture along with other architectural traditions in the Middle East. [479] The artistic style of these tiles and of other Ottoman art was influenced by an "International Timurid" taste that emerged from the intense artistic patronage of the Timurids, who controlled a large empire across the region. The tiles seem to have been fabricated locally rather than at centers like Iznik, despite the absence of a sophisticated ceramic production center in the region. [326] The complex included a mosque and its usual dependencies like a mektep and a hammam. [91][61] He also built the Tomb of Hayrettin Barbaros in the Beikta neighbourhood in 1541. It was completed in September or October 1472 and its name derives from its rich tile decoration, including the first appearance of Iranian-inspired banna'i tilework in Istanbul. [454], Fountain of Abdlhamid II (18961901), located today in Maka Park, Botter Apartment on Istiklal Street, by Raimond D'Aronco (19001901), Laleli Fountain in Galata (1905, unconfirmed architect)[455], Tomb of Sheikh Zafir, by Raimond D'Aronco (19051906), It was also in the late 19th century that the first modern scholarly attempts to define historic Ottoman architecture as a distinctive style or tradition were undertaken. The rough guide to Istanbul, Wikipedia, Istanbultourstudio.com. Choros with windows in upper left, katholikon, Vatopedi monastery, Mount Athos (photo: Saint-Petersburg Theological Academy, CC BY-ND 2.0), Hypothetical reconstruction (top) and plan (bottom), Theotokos tou Libos, c. 907, Constantinople (adapted from Megaw, The Original Form of the Theotokos Church of Constantine Lips). Large muqarnas carvings, grooving, or other geometrical carvings decorate the domes and semi-domes. The Myrelaion church in Constantinople, built c. 920, achieves a balance between the articulation of the structural systemand the coordination of the interior spaces. [415] Later on, the largest and most famous Catholic church in Istanbul, the Church of St. Anthony in Beyolu, was built between 1906 and 1912 in a neo-Gothic style by architect Giulio Mongeri. Please note that some of the places featured on this site cannot be verified for certain. Full article: Dreams of an Iconic Mosque: Spatial and Temporal [505], Tiles in the Tomb of Roxelana, Istanbul (1558), Tiles in the mihrab of the Rstem Pasha Mosque, Istanbul (circa 1561), Tiles in the outer portico of the Rstem Pasha Mosque, Istanbul (circa 1561), TIles in the Mausoleum of Suleiman, Istanbul (1566), Tile decoration in the Sokullu Mehmed Pasha Mosque, Istanbul (1572), Detail of tiles in the Sokullu Mehmed Pasha Mosque, Istanbul (1572), Tilework near the mihrab in the Selimiye Mosque, Edirne (circa 1574), Detail of tiles in the Selimiye Mosque, Edirne (circa 1574), Tile panel at the entrance to the Tomb of Selim II in Istanbul (1576), Tiles in the Atik Valide Mosque, Istanbul (1583), In the early 17th century, some features of 16th-century Iznik tiles began to fade, such as the use of embossed tomato red. [506] The dominant colours are blue and green, while the motifs are typical of the 17th century: tulips, carnations, cypresses, roses, vines, flower vases, and Chinese cloud motifs. Files are available under licenses specified on their description page. Among the other original buildings in the complex were a school, library and hospital. Middle Byzantinec. 843 1204 However, Davud Agha's death a year or two after, followed by the death of Safiye Sultan in 1603, caused construction to be abandoned. In the middle of Istanbuls historic peninsula is the great mosque of the conquering Sultan Mehmet II. This can be seen in the early Hadim Ibrahim Pasha Mosque (1551) and the later Rstem Pasha Mosque (1561), both in Istanbul. Fatih Hotel is located in the heart of old Istanbul, where the historic and shopping areas are located, and it is a short distance from the most important transportation stations in Istanbul and its famous squares. [464] New government-run institutions that trained architects and engineers, established in the late 19th century and further centralized under the Young Turks, became instrumental in disseminating this "national style". This fountain is a slightly simplified version of the other one and lacks the corner sebils, which are replaced with corner fountains instead. [52] These chinoiserie-like motifs, along with the focus on blue and white colours, most likely reflect an influence from contemporary Chinese porcelain although the evidence for Chinese porcelain reaching Edirne at this time is unclear. [148][149][21][150], The mosque itself has a form similar to that of the earlier Bayezid II Mosque: a central dome preceded and followed by semi-domes, with smaller domes covering the sides. [511] Ktahya, unlike Iznik, had not become solely reliant on imperial commissions and as a result it weathered the changes more successfully. [15][13], Ottoman dynastic patronage was concentrated in the historic capitals of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul (Constantinople), as well as in several other important administrative centers such as Amasya and Manisa. [295] By contrast, however, the nearby tomb of Mehmed II, which was rebuilt at the same time, is in a fully Baroque style. [405][376] The Ortaky Mosque (or Byk Mecidiye Mosque), located further northeast on a small promontory along the Bosphorus shore, has a very similar design that is considered more successful. [317][318] However, it was under Selim III that monumental barracks proliferated and became highly visible elements of the urban landscape. [234] The first and most remarkable of these is the Ahmed III Fountain built in 1728 next to the Hagia Sophia and in front of the outer gate of Topkap Palace. However some wealthy local patrons probably imported tiles from Istanbul, which explains the high-quality tilework in some distant monuments such as the Behram Pasha Mosque (157273) in Diyarbakir. Iznik ceramics and classical Ottoman architecture thus reached their greatest heights of achievement around the same time, during the reign of Suleiman and his immediate successors. Karanlk Kilise, 11th century, Greme, Cappadocia (photo: Octavio L, CC BY-SA 3.0). It is one of the largest examples of TurkishIslamic architecture in Istanbul and represents an important stage in the development of c [243][244][245] This mosque reflects an overall classical form and is very similar to the nearby Cerrah Pasha Mosque (late 16th century), but the flexible placement of the various components of the complex around a garden enclosure is more reflective of the new changes in tastes. The Al-Fateh Mosque (also known as Al-Fateh Islamic Center & Al Fateh Grand Mosque) ( Arabic: ; transliterated: Masjid al-Fatih) was one of the largest mosques in the world, encompassing 6,500 square meters and having the capacity to accommodate over 7,000 worshippers at a time. [267] Even more unusual is the form of the mosque's courtyard, which is semielliptical instead of the traditional rectangular form. Myrelaion church (Bodrum Mosque), c. 920, Constantinople (Istanbul) (photo: Robert Ousterhout), Elements of a cross-in-square church, Myrelaion church (Bodrum Mosque), c. 920, Constantinople (Istanbul). [7] The master architect of the classical period, Mimar Sinan, served as the chief court architect (mimarbai) from 1538 until his death in 1588. [460] Parville was employed as an architect by the Ottoman state and was responsible for the restoration of many historic Ottoman monuments in Bursa, including some damaged by the 1855 earthquake. [300][301] The mosque was intended to serve as the sultan's prayer space when he was residing in one of his palaces along the Bosphorus. [7][8] The second half of the 16th century also saw the apogee of certain decorative arts, most notably in the use of Iznik tiles. [163] In this mosque he completely integrated the supporting columns of the hexagonal baldaquin into the outer walls for the first time, thus creating a unified interior space. It was completed in 14571458. Its named after the Ottoman SultanMehmed the Conqueror, known in Turkish asFatih Sultan Mehmed. [170] Four semi-dome squinches occupy the corners but they are much smaller in proportion to the main dome. [446] Another building with neo-Ottoman motifs by Vallaury is the Office of Public Debts (now serving as the Istanbul Erkek Lisesi), erected in Istanbul in 1897. Early Byzantine(including Iconoclasm) c. 330 843 [457][458] The volume sought to define Ottoman architecture as a cohesive and rational architectural tradition and to make it compatible with emerging European discourses on architecture at the time. [394] The palace was destroyed by fire in 1910, leaving only the seaside faade standing which was later integrated into a hotel in 1987. [511] The most harmonious examples of tile decoration in 17th-century Ottoman architecture are the Yerevan Kiosk and Baghdad Kiosk in Topkap Palace, built in 1635 and 1639, respectively. [414] The Stefan Sveti Church (or Church of St. Stephen of the Bulgars) is a Bulgarian Orthodox church built between 1895 and 1898 in an eclectic style, located in the Balat neighbourhood. [464] Another example is the Sultanahmet Jail (19161917), now a Four Seasons Hotel. [510] The much smaller inili ("Tiled") Mosque (1640) in skdar is also covered in tilework on the inside. [20] It is also the first example of an Ottoman single-domed mosque, consisting of a square chamber covered by a dome. [275][276] It was used as a private lounge or reception area (selamlk) for the sultan when visiting the mosque and gave him direct access to the sultan's loge inside the mosque. It also has a very ornate sebil positioned at the street corner, next to the founder's tomb. [98] He is credited with designing buildings as far as Buda (present-day Budapest) and Mecca. Examining the Fatih Mosque housed in a former Catholic church in the city center, we show in what ways the efforts at making this mosque iconic are shaped by the building's iconic field, by which we denote its entanglement with other (religious and non-religious) sites in . [233] The new fountains were unprecedented in Ottoman architecture. Ibrahim (Abraham), Places Related to Hz. One of the finest examples of the latter can . Before the reconstruction of the mosque, Mihriah Sultan (Selim III's mother), built a charitable complex nearby in a vibrant Baroque style. Today Fatih Mosque is one of the busiest mosques in the city, only instead of attracting crowds of fanny-pack wearing, sun-burnt Europeans, the vast majority of visitors are Muslims from all over the world coming to worship in this historic mosque. It is unclear if the new church type emerged by means of later additions or modifications, but the new feature clearly responded to the requirements of the monastic service. It is known today as the Old Mosque (Eski Cami). [531] A Turkish architect and city planner, Turgut Cansever, described the Ottoman cities as the "Ottoman paradises and said that the Islamic characteristics are best represented by the Ottoman cities: "The ones who build the paradise where there exist no conflicts but all the beauties, tried to rise and open the Gates of paradise by accomplishing the task of beautifying the world. The iwans on the side and the other various rooms attached to these buildings may have served to house Sufi students and traveling dervishes, since the Sufi brotherhoods were one of the main supporters of the early Ottomans. The imaret has an extravagantly Baroque gate which is carved with high-relief vegetal scrolls and a spiralling "swan-neck" pediment, flanked by marble columns with Corinthian-like capitals, and surmounted by wide eaves. During the refurbishment, the exterior of the building was covered in tilework which replaced the older Umayyad mosaic decoration. [519] Depictions of Medina and the Prophet's Mosque also appear in other specimens of the time. [418][419][420] Some notable 19th-century examples include the Italian Synagogue, built in the 1880s with a neo-Gothic faade, and the Ashkenazi Synagogue, inaugurated in 1900 with a European-style faade. Often a single chapel is set to one side of the building, as at Sv. [385][386], View of the Dolmabahe Palace from the Bosphorus, Crystal Staircase in the selamlik section of the palace, Many other palaces, residences, and pleasure pavilions were built in the 19th century, most of them in the Bosphorus suburbs of Istanbul. There are two slender minarets on either side. Fatih Hotel Istanbul 2. It was designed in an Orientalist style by German architect August Jasmund (also spelled "Jachmund"). Torsap license number 9152, All Rights Reserved for Safaraq Tourist - Safaraq Media 2023 | The pyramidal massing of forms, from a tall central dome to high crossing vaults, to lower corner vaults and walls, provides an ideal framework for figural imagery. [56] On the outside, this results in an early example of the "cascade of domes" visual effect seen in later Ottoman mosques, although the overall arrangement here is described by Sheila Blair and Jonathan Bloom as not yet successful compared to later examples. The schools were particularly important as the Sultan wanted to establish the new Ottoman capital as the epicentre of learning in the Islamic world and attract teachers and physicians from Cairo. It repeats the Bursa-type plan and also features rich tile decoration similar to the Green Mosque in Bursa, as well as new blue-and-white tiles with Chinese influences. The Mosque is also distinguished by the presence of a well of water inside it, and it is now in the form of a water fountain within the mosque. Lavishly decorated with marble and mosaic, the circumstances of its construction remain unclear (view plan and isometric view of the Panagia and katholikon churches at Hosios Loukas monastery). In 1732 an important water distribution structure, the taksim, was first built on what is now Taksim Square. Originated as a Greek city called Byzantium, what's now known as Istanbul initially made name as Constantinople, an Eastern Roman imperial capital whose greatness had lasted for over a millennium, from 330 AD until the Ottoman invasion in 1453. [175] In Topkap Palace one of his most notable works, the Chamber or Pavilion of Murad III, was built in 1578. [224], One of the most important creations of the Tulip Period was the Sadbd Palace, a new summer palace designed and built by Damat Ibrahim Pasha in 17221723 for Ahmed III. Here Sinan employed a larger square baldaquin structure with a dome resting on four corner buttresses, filliing the walls between the buttresses with a multitude of windows which introduced an unusual amount of light into the interior. The originals were destroyed in the earthquake. [105][106][107] Other notable architectural complexes before Sinan's architect career, at the end of Selim I's reign or in Suleiman's early reign, are the Hafsa Sultan or Sultaniye Mosque in Manisa (circa 1522), the Fatih Pasha Mosque in Diyarbakir (completed in 1520 or 1523), and the oban Mustafa Pasha Complex in Gebze (15231524). He instead experimented with other designs that seemed to aim for a completely unified interior space and for ways to emphasize the visitor's perception of the main dome upon entering a mosque. Save up to 30% when you upgrade to an image pack. [530], Nature became a method for decorative patterns in architectural details and urban structure. [490], An important case of Ottoman tile decoration outside the imperial capitals around this time was the refurbishment of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem ordered by Sultan Suleiman. [197] In the mosque's prayer hall the central dome is flanked by four semi-domes just like the ehzade Mosque, with additional smaller semi-domes opening from each larger semi-dome. The outer precinct of the mosque is quite large, having been built to accommodate the tents of a caravan. [345] The Azm Palace in Damascus, for example, was built around 1750 in a largely Damascene style. [152][153] The exterior faades of the mosque are characterized by ground-level porticos, wide arches in which sets of windows are framed, and domes and semi-domes that progressively culminate upwards in a roughly pyramidal fashion to the large central dome. Photo about Fatih Mosque, Istanbul interior dome. [206][207] It was only resumed on the initiative of Hatice Turhan Sultan in 1661 and finished in 1663. The builders were likely of Iranian origin, as historical documents indicate the presence of tilecutters from Khorasan, but not much is known about them. Doan Kuban has suggested that it may have been due to a request from Suleiman. the Hekimolu Ali Pasha Mosque) and in several rooms at Topkap Palace, such as the tiles adorning the mihrab of the prayer room of the Black Eunuchs. [511] Ahmet III and his grand vizier attempted to revive the tile industry by establishing a new workshop between 1719 and 1724 at Tekfursaray in Istanbul, where a previous workshop had existed in the early 16th century. [402], Byk Mabeyn Kk, built during reign of Abdlaziz (r. 18611876), Chalet Pavilion, built by Abdlhamid II (multiple building phases), The "Mother-of-Pearl" Hall inside the Chalet Pavilion, Hamidiye Mosque (1886), the official mosque of the palace, Interior of Hamidiye Mosque: view towards the rear and the imperial balconies, After the Nusretiye Mosque, one of the earliest mosques designed by the Balyan family is the Kuk Mecidiye Mosque in Istanbul, near Yldz, which was built in 1848. Ottoman architecture is an architectural style or tradition that developed under the Ottoman Empire over a long period, [1] undergoing some significant changes during its history. The cross-in-square type is widespread, first appearing in Greece in the late tenth century at the Panagia church at Hosios Loukas monastery. They choose instead to draw their ideas directly from observations of old Ottoman and Seljuk monuments, so as to elaborate what they viewed as a more purely "Turkish" style. [205], While the craftsmen at Iznik were still capable of producing rich and colourful tiles throughout the 17th century, there was an overall decline in quality. Following the models developed in the Transitional Period, the design is again popularized in the twelfth century, as occurred at the katholikon of the Chora monastery. The seemingly irregular layout of the palace was in fact a reflection of a clear hierarchical organization of functions and private residences, with the innermost areas reserved for the privacy of the sultan and his innermost circle. This allowed for the walls in between the buttresses to be thinner, which in turn allowed for more windows to bring in more light. Save up to 70% off with image packs. The first work to do so was the Ul-i Mi'mar-i Osmn ("Fundamentals of Ottoman Architecture"), published in 1873 simultaneously in Ottoman Turkish, French, and German. [247] The political and cultural conditions which led to the Ottoman Baroque trace their origins in part to the Tulip Period, when the Ottoman ruling class opened itself to Western influence.

Virgin Percentage By Age, Banks Looking For Reo Agents, Articles F